Apparatus for preparing a biocompatible matrix

ABSTRACT

An apparatus and method of using the apparatus to prepare a biocompatible biodegradable matrix capable of supporting cells to form an implantable or engraftable surgical device. A matrix-forming fluid is contained within a chamber defined by top and bottom surfaces of a thermally conductive material and spacers defining the thickness of the matrix. The chamber is then cooled to freeze the solution at a controlled rate, resulting in a matrix with a desired and uniform thickness having symmetric and uniform reticulations. The apparatus and method reproducibly forms such a matrix, which may be populated with cells for transplantation and engraftment into a wound.

FIELD OF THE INVENTION

[0001] The invention is directed generally to an apparatus and method to prepare a biocompatible reticulated matrix that may be used to support cells to form a surgical device such as a cultured skin substitute device.

BACKGROUND

[0002] Skin is one of the largest organs in the body and covers substantially the entire body surface. Skin is composed of two main layers: the surface epithelium or epidermis, which contains keratinocytes as one type of epidermal cells, and the subjacent connective tissue layer or dermis, which contains fibroblasts as one type of dermal cells. The functions of skin include protecting an organism from injury and dessication by serving as a barrier to infection, perceiving or detecting environmental stimuli, excreting various substances, regulating body temperature, and helping to maintain water balance. Because of its quantitative and qualitative importance, substantially intact and healthy skin is crucial, not only for the well being of an organism but for its very survival.

[0003] The health and integrity of skin may be compromised by congenital or acquired pathological conditions, either acute or chronic, for which normal skin regeneration and repair processes may be inadequate. These conditions include, but are not limited to, burns, wounds, ulcers, infections, and/or congenital abnormalities. Patients who are burned over a large surface area often require immediate and extensive skin replacement. Less life-threatening but chronic skin conditions, as occur in venous stasis ulcers, diabetic ulcers, or decubitus ulcers as three examples, may progress to more severe conditions if left untreated, particularly since patients with these conditions have an underlying pathology. Reduction of morbidity and mortality in such patients depends upon timely and effective restoration of the structure and function of skin.

[0004] Skin substitutes derived either ex vivo or in vitro may be used to treat these or other conditions. Desirable skin substitutes are readily available, require a minimum amount of donor skin, are otherwise simple to produce, and are cost-effective to generate and maintain. Several approaches to produce skin substitutes which satisfy some or all of these requirements have been attempted, with varying degrees of success. However, no skin substitute has yet regenerated all of the structures and functions of skin. Rather, all are subsets of uninjured skin. Only a transplant of full thickness skin, which demonstrates scarring during healing, and restores virtually all structures and functions of normal uninjured skin.

[0005] Materials have been manufactured for use in permanent skin repair. These materials contain different components replacing or simulating the components and functions of the dermis and/or epidermis. Examples of these materials include EpiCel™, which lacks a dermal component and uses the patient's own cultured keratinocytes; Integra™, which uses a collagen-glycosaminoglycan (GAG) matrix to provide an acellular dermal component and uses a thin epidermal autograft; AlloDerm™, which uses a dermal matrix and a thin epidermal autograft; DermaGraft™, which uses a polyglycolic acid/polylactic acid (PGA/PLA) matrix and allogeneic human fibroblasts for the dermis; Hyaff/LaserSkin™, which uses hyaluran and fibroblasts for the dermis, and hyaluran and the patient's own keratinocytes for the epidermis; and PolyActive™, which uses polyethylene oxide/polybutylthalate (PEO/PBT) and the patient's own fibroblasts for the dermis, and the patient's cultured keratinocytes for the epidermis.

[0006] Materials to either temporarily cover wounds, or to stimulate permanent skin repair processes, included ApliGraft™, which uses collagen gel and allogeneic fibroblasts for the dermis, and cultured allogeneic keratinocytes for the epidermis; Comp Cult Skin™ or OrCel™, which uses collagen and allogeneic fibroblasts for the dermis, and cultured allogeneic keratinocytes for the epidermis; and TransCyte™, which uses allogeneic fibroblasts for the dermis and a synthetic material, BioBrane™, for the epidermis.

[0007] While the above materials are useful to varying degrees, each has disadvantages and limitations. Some of the materials are mechanically fragile, making it difficult to perform the required manipulations and transfers of the material in large sections without tearing. Instead, the materials must be used as smaller pieces, which makes coverage of large surface areas technically laborious for the physician and cosmetically undesirable for the patient. The materials are also susceptible to microbial contamination, which is unacceptable for patients who are already at an increased risk for infection due to their compromised condition. The materials show varying rates of engraftment and time to heal, both of which must be considered in balancing the advantage of a particular material over another for a particular patient. For example, a material which is otherwise acceptable but which takes longer to engraft and heal is less desirable, since recovery includes as rapid a return to a normal routine as possible.

[0008] Yannas et al. in U.S. Pat. No. 4,458,678 discloses a method for preparing a fibrous lattice and seeding it with viable cells. The lattice is prepared by pouring an aqueous slurry of collagen and glycosaminoglycan into an open metal tray or pan. Use of an open tray results in asymmetric contact of the slurry to ambient conditions; that is, one surface of the slurry is in contact with a surface of the tray or pan (“pan surface”), while another surface of the slurry is in contact with the atmospheric environment (“air surface”). The pan is then placed in contact with a heat sink, such as the refrigerated shelf of a lyophilizer, to initiate freezing of the aqueous slurry from the pan side. Freezing proceeds predominantly in a vectorial direction from the pan surface to the air surface, with heat flowing much more rapidly toward the pan surface than the air surface. Upon freezing, the structure of the lattice is asymmetric with, generally, more frequently distributed reticulations of polymers toward the pan surface than the air surface. After freeze-drying, the resulting lattice is an asymmetric structure, which results in non-uniform ability for cells to penetrate the lattice. Furthermore, the method and apparatus of Yannas limit both the uniformity of thickness, and the minimum thickness that can be obtained consistently and deliberately.

[0009] The inventor's own previous composite skin replacement, disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,976,878, which is expressly incorporated by reference herein in its entirety, has been used successfully for permanent skin replacement. It is applied surgically in a single procedure, and contains a layer of cultured epidermal cells, a synthetic dermal membrane component, and a substantially nonporous synthetic lamination layer on one surface of the dermal membrane component. The synthetic dermal membrane component is formed from collagen, or collagen and a mucopolysaccharide compound, and is laminated with the same collagen or collagen and mucopolysaccharide compound-containing solution containing a volatile cryoprotectant. The substantially nonporous lamination layer may be located between the dermal component and the layer of cultured epidermal cells, promoting localization of epidermal cells on the surface of the dermal component and movement of nutrients to the cells of the cellular epidermal component. This composition can also be used to deliver biologically active molecules to the site where it is applied. The apparatus for preparing the synthetic dermal membrane component, used to prepare the composite skin replacement of the '878 patent, is disclosed in U.S. Pat. No. 5,711,172, which is expressly incorporated herein by reference in its entirety.

[0010] Desirable features of the above-described composite skin replacement included an increased rate of vascularization of the area covered by the material, decreased microbial contamination, increased nutrient supply, and improved epidermal barrier function, compared to other materials. Areas covered with the composite skin replacement required less time to engraft and heal, and the material was less susceptible to microbial contamination compared to other materials. Other desirable features were that this material was relatively non-fragile and easy to handle, and could be generated relatively rapidly, for example, within the time frame in which a burn patient would require skin grafts. However, while no other alternative material has healed excised, full thickness wounds more rapidly, and with as low an incidence of microbial contamination, limitations still exist. Thus, there remains a need to more closely approach the structural and functional properties of normal uninjured skin.

SUMMARY OF THE INVENTION

[0011] The invention is directed to an apparatus for the preparation of a biocompatible, biodegradable, matrix having substantially symmetrical reticulations to support cells inoculated thereon. The cells may be cultured skin cells for formation of an engraftable device for the surgical replacement of skin in burn patients, for example. Basically, a solution of matrix components is cast between top and bottom surfaces (e.g., plates) of a material which facilitates rapid transfer of heat, so that the solution in contact with these surfaces is rapidly and uniformly cooled on both top and bottom surfaces. Once frozen, the solid matrix has substantially symmetric reticulations, which allow uniform cell population and result in an improved device for ingrafting or implanting in a patient. The apparatus and method of using the apparatus results in reproducible matrices each time the apparatus is used, so that reproducible devices are generated.

[0012] In one embodiment, the apparatus contains a chamber defined by top and bottom planar surfaces of a heat conductive material, such as a metal. The sides of the chamber are defined by at least one gasket of substantially uniform thickness positioned between the top and bottom surfaces. Closures, such as clips, latches, clamps, etc. hold the planar surfaces together. The assembled apparatus allows indirect contact by a coolant and subsequent freezing of the matrix-forming solution. The chamber may be immersed in the coolant, either vertically or horizontally, as in a coolant bath.

[0013] In another embodiment, the apparatus containing the above-described chamber may be further contained within a jacket through which a coolant flows or recirculates. In this embodiment, the apparatus also has top and bottom frames which are affixed to the top and bottom surfaces of the heat conductive material. The top and bottom frames contain one or more ports and channels through which a coolant fluid flows. The embodiment provides a contained apparatus to effect the desired rate of cooling.

[0014] In another embodiment, the invention is directed to a method of preparing the matrix using the apparatus. A matrix-forming solution is contained within a chamber and is in contact with a material which allows rapid and substantially uniform removal of heat from the top and bottom surfaces of the solution. Gaskets of a desired thickness separate the top and bottom surfaces and allow control over the thickness of the resulting matrix. Using a coolant that can effect the desired rate of cooling, the solution contained in the chamber is frozen to form a solid matrix. The solid matrix is then dehydrated and crosslinked using physical methods such as freeze-drying and thermal crosslinking, rather than by adding chemical crosslinking compounds, the residue of which may negatively affect the formed matrix and the cells with which it comes in contact. The resulting physically-crosslinked matrix is then sterilized before cells are inoculated. The matrix thus prepared has a thickness and reticulation pattern which facilitates uniform population with cells and results in a device which is readily engrafted or transplanted into a patient.

[0015] These and other features of the invention will be further appreciated with reference to the following drawings and detailed description.

BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE DRAWINGS

[0016]FIG. 1A shows components of one embodiment of a matrix-casting apparatus.

[0017]FIG. 1B shows the assembled apparatus.

[0018]FIG. 1C is a cross-section view of the apparatus.

[0019]FIG. 1D shows the components of a second embodiment of the matrix-casting apparatus.

[0020]FIG. 1E is a cross-section view of the second embodiment of the matrix-casting apparatus

[0021]FIG. 2A is a top view of the bottom frame of the apparatus.

[0022]FIG. 2B is a bottom view of the bottom frame of the apparatus.

[0023]FIG. 2C is a side view of the bottom frame of the apparatus.

[0024]FIG. 3A is a bottom view of the center frame of the apparatus.

[0025]FIG. 3B is a side view of the center frame of the apparatus.

[0026]FIG. 3C is a cross section view of the center frame of the apparatus.

[0027]FIG. 4A is a top view of the top frame of the apparatus.

[0028]FIG. 4B is a side view of the top frame of the apparatus.

[0029]FIG. 4C is a cross section view of the top frame of the apparatus.

DETAILED DESCRIPTION

[0030] The invention is a method and apparatus to prepare an acellular biocompatible biodegradable matrix having substantially uniform and symmetric reticulations that are formed by freezing an aqueous fluid containing protein, or protein and carbohydrate, at a controlled rate, and subsequent freeze-drying (lyophilization) and a uniform thickness of less than 1 mm. The reticulated matrix is capable of serving as a support or scaffold for cells inoculated thereon. The cells are animal cells, which encompass human cells. In one embodiment, the cells are epidermal and dermal cells, resulting in a cultured skin device as disclosed in co-pending related U.S. patent application Ser. No. ______, entitled Surgical Device For Skin Therapy or Testing and filed on even date herewith, which is expressly incorporated by reference herein in its entirety. The device prepared using the inventive apparatus facilitates cell attachment to the multiple continuous surfaces of the matrix and maintains a desired thickness. This is in contrast to a matrix with asymmetric reticulations and less uniform thickness that is formed when a fluid containing protein, or protein and carbohydrate, contacts an open tray or pan during matrix formation.

[0031] Biological incorporation of a matrix into or overlying a wound depends, in part, upon the ability of non-inflammatory connective tissue cells to migrate into the matrix from the wound bed. Thus, the structural and biochemical characteristics of the matrix must be uniform, and further must be optimized to promote fibrovascular migration. The inventive method and apparatus controls structural characteristics of the matrix, such as its thickness and the uniformity and size of the resulting reticulations, by the symmetric extraction of heat from the matrix-forming fluid and the rigid and co-planar surfaces from which heat is extracted. This results in a matrix with symmetric reticulations and uniform thickness. Other variables that are controlled include the rate of cooling to effect freezing the matrix-containing fluid, the size of the ice crystals formed, the volume of the matrix-forming fluid that is frozen, and the concentration (% wt/vol) of the components in the matrix-forming fluid.

[0032] In one embodiment, the invention is an apparatus to prepare a biocompatible degradable reticulated matrix. The apparatus has a closed chamber to contain a matrix-forming fluid, such as a protein containing fluid. The chamber may be defined by six sides, as in a box. In this embodiment, two of the sides are heat conductive (e.g., metal), parallel rectangular plates that are made more rigid by a framework of reinforcing supports outside of the chamber that contains the matrix-forming fluid. The remaining four sides of the chamber may consist of material that acts as a gasket or O-ring, and may be adjusted in thickness to define the thickness of the resulting matrix. In one embodiment, the gasket consists of two pieces of material. One piece has two parallel strips connected at one end by a perpendicular strip (U-shaped) that are located to adjoin three of the four edges of the two plates. The matrix-forming fluid may be introduced into the chamber through the side without a gasket (open side). Subsequently, the second gasket piece is placed between the fourth edges of the two parallel plates as a single strip to contain the matrix-forming solution. In another embodiment, the gasket is a singular, rectangular strip or O-ring adjoining the perimeters of the two parallel plates, and may have ports for introduction of the matrix-forming solution and displacement of air.

[0033] The thickness of the matrix may be adjusted by the thickness of the gasket material used in the chamber. The shape of the chamber need not be rectangular, nor the resulting matrix planar. The chamber may also be a continuous surface of any shape, as in a bladder, sack, or other type of flexible container that may be selectively deformed to obtain the desired shape and thickness of the matrix with ports for introduction of matrix-forming solution and displacement of air. The surface of the chamber is also removable to expose a surface for freeze-drying.

[0034] The matrix-forming fluid contained in the chamber is frozen by the removal of heat at a controlled rate. This occurs predominantly through the two plates by simultaneous and symmetric application of a coolant to the opposite sides of the plates. Application of the coolant may be accomplished by several mechanisms. As one example, the sealed chamber containing the matrix-forming solution may be submerged or flooded with a chilled liquid coolant in an open bath of a static coolant. As another example, a coolant may be contained in a closed, recirculating system that flows in contact with the parallel plates of the chamber. As yet another example, a liquid or gaseous coolant may flow through an open vessel and be exhausted without recirculation. To establish a closed, recirculating coolant system, the plates between which the matrix-forming solution is placed and sealed may themselves be incorporated into a single apparatus, such as two containers through which the coolant flows (coolers). In one embodiment, the plates contacting the matrix-forming solution comprise one surface each of two hollow boxes with ports for supply and return vessels (i.e., tubing) of the coolant to a recirculating chiller, or for supply and exhaust of a flowing, non-recirculating coolant, such as liquid nitrogen.

[0035] The structure of any given formulation of matrix may then be regulated by controlling the rate of freezing. This may be accomplished in a number of ways, for example, by adjustment of the coolant temperature and volume in an open system; by adjustment of the coolant temperature and flow rate in a closed system; by selection of a coolant having a specific heat capacity; or by selection of the materials for the chamber and/or apparatus with preferred conductivities of heat. The structure of the matrix may also be regulated by the formulation of the matrix-forming solution.

[0036] The frozen matrix is subsequently dehydrated, crosslinked with or without the use of chemical crosslinking agents, and sterilized to provide a support or scaffold on which cells may be inoculated. The controlled and symmetric rate of freezing of the matrix produces uniform and symmetric reticulations throughout the uniform thickness of the matrix, which facilitate uniform cell distributions in the matrix and provide an enhanced surgical device.

[0037] In one embodiment, as shown in FIGS. 1A-B, the matrix-forming apparatus 30 consists of three frames that, upon assembly, form a preparation device or freezing apparatus. The three frames are a bottom frame 10, a center frame 15 which is also referred to as a carrier plate, and a top frame 25. Frames 10, 15, and 25 may be constructed of a metal, such as aluminum or steel, or another inflexible material such as wood, ceramic, or hard plastic. Apparatus 30 also includes a resilient spacer gasket 20, a spacer gasket plug 21, and “O” ring gaskets (not shown) which may be silicone rubber or other synthetic material.

[0038] Center frame 15 has a top surface 51 b, and top frame 25 has a bottom surface Sic, both surfaces 51 b, 51 c may be of any non-adherent material that resists deformation (for example, polished aluminum or other metal, ceramic, etc.) to facilitate removal of the of the subsequently formed matrix. Alternatively, a thin sheet 53 of a non-stick material such as TEFLON™ may be placed between spacer gasket 20 and top frame 25 to provide an additional non-adherent surface to facilitate separation of bottom surface 51 c from the frozen matrix. The surfaces 51 b, 51 c may also be coated with a non-adherent material. Spacer gasket 20 and spacer gasket plug 21 may be made of a silicone rubber or other appropriate material.

[0039] With reference to FIGS. 1D and 1E in which the reference numerals refer to like features in FIGS. 1A-1C the matrix-forming apparatus 30 a may optionally be used independent of the bottom frame 10 and top plate 50 d of apparatus 30. This embodiment is useful for exposure of the apparatus 30 containing the matrix-forming solution to a static coolant. This embodiment also includes a top frame 25 a without sheet 50 d so that the coolant may be in direct contact with surface 51 d of sheet 50 c, a center frame 15 a, also called a carrier plate, having a fastener such as a one half draw latch 45 adapted to the outside surfaces of the frame walls 61 a-d, a spacer gasket 20, a spacer gasket plug 21, and optionally a non-stick sheet 53.

[0040] The frames 10, 15, 25 and gaskets 20, 21 are assembled to form the apparatus 30 by fastening the components together as shown in FIG. 1B. As shown in FIG. 1C within the assembled apparatus 30 is a chamber 75 capable of containing the matrix-forming fluid for subsequent controlled-rate freezing. The chamber 75 is defined by the following surfaces: the inner walls 22 a-c of the spacer gasket 20, the inner wall 23 of the spacer gasket plug 21, the top surface 51 b of the center frame 15 with or without the optional non-stick sheet 53, and the bottom surface 51 c of the top frame 25. The spacer gasket 20 and spacer gasket plug 21 are of the same thickness, which regulates the thickness of the resulting matrix formed within the apparatus 30. In one embodiment, the gasket 20 and gasket plug 21 have a thickness in the range of about 0.1 mm to about 10 mm. In another embodiment, the gasket 20 and gasket plug 21 have a thickness in the range of about 0.5 mm to about 1.5 mm. Each of these components of the apparatus 30 will now be described in further detail.

[0041] Bottom Frame

[0042] The components of the bottom frame 10 are shown in FIGS. 2A-C. The frame has at least four sides, or walls, 60 a-d, and may be constructed of a metal, such as aluminum or steel, or another substantially or rigid material such as wood, ceramic, or hard plastic. The bottom frame 10 has a resilient gasket or O ring (not shown) which may be silicone, rubber, or other synthetic material. The O ring is affixed in the channel groove 40 that is recessed in the interior upper surfaces of the frame walls 60 a-d. There is also a metal sheet 50 a adapted to the bottom surfaces of the frame walls 60 a-d; in one embodiment the sheet is made of aluminum. The edges of the frame walls 60 a-d and the edges of the bottom metal sheet 50 a may have holes (not shown) for receiving fasteners 55, as shown in FIGS. 2B-C, and/or fastening by welding, riveting, or using a metal adhesive to seal the joints of the respective frame walls. Alternatively, these parts may be permanently affixed, for example, the frame walls 60 a-d may be constructed from a solid material such that there are no joints between the walls. The holes are aligned with corresponding holes in either the metal sheet 50 a or frame walls 60 a-d. At least two opposing frame walls 60 a and 60 c of the bottom frame 10 have at least one flow port 36 that allows flow along the entire width of the frame walls 60 a, 60 c extending from the outside vertical surfaces 95 a, 95 c to the inside vertical surfaces 96 a, 96 c of the frame walls 60 a and 60 c. Hose barbs 35 are adapted to flow ports 36. At least two opposing frame walls 60 a and 60 c, 60 b and 60 d, or both have fasteners 45 which are any type of couplers or other attachments to mate assembly 10 with the top assembly 25, such as with at least one half of a draw latch 45 a adapted to their outer vertical surfaces 95 a-d.

[0043] Center Frame

[0044] The center frame 15, or carrier plate, with various components is shown in FIGS. 1A, 3A, 3B, and 3C. As shown in FIGS. 3A and 3C, the frame 15 has at least one internal support 65 adapted to inner surfaces 100 a and 100 b of the frame walls 61 b and 61 d in the interior of the frame 15, and may have at least one internal frame support 66 adapted to the inner surfaces 105 a and 105 b of the frame walls 61 a and 61 c. Along its length, internal support 65 has a plurality of recessed flow vents 85 oriented in the direction of coolant flow to conduct coolant and allow coolant flow through the center frame 15. The walls of the center frame 15 are constructed of any material, and may be jointed or continuous, as previously described for the bottom frame 10.

[0045] The center frame 15 has a substantially rigid sheet 50 b of a material, such as a metal or ceramic, that is adapted to the top surface (not shown) of the frame walls 61 a-d. In one embodiment, sheet 50 b has a mirrored-finished metal surface. The mirror-finished surface 51 b of sheet 50 b may also optionally be coated with a non-adherent material such as TEFLON™. The top surfaces of the frame walls 61 a-d are adapted to a surface of sheet 50 b using, for example, a metal adhesive, weld, or rivet.

[0046] Top Frame

[0047] With reference to FIG. 4A, top frame 25 has four walls 62 a-d, at least one support 110 connecting the interior surfaces 115 b and 115 d of walls 62 b and 62 d, and may have at least one internal support 111 connecting the interior surfaces 115 a and 115 c of walls 62 a and 62 c. The assembly, construction, and composition of walls and supports of the top frame 25 are as previously described for bottom frame 10. Internal support 110 has a plurality of recessed flow vents 90 that extend the entire width of the support 110 and are oriented in the direction of coolant flow. At least two opposing frame walls, for example 62 a and 62 c, 62 b and 62 d, or both have at least one flow port 38 that extends the entire width of the frame walls 62 a, 62 c and hose barbs 37 adapted to the flow ports 38. At least two opposing frame walls 62 a and 62 c, 62 b and 62 d, or both have couples, fasteners, or attachments 46 such as a draw latch adapted to outer vertical surfaces 120 a-d of the top frame walls 62 a-62 d. The couplers, fasteners, or attachments 45, 46 are mated to secure the center frame 15 between the top frame 25 and bottom frame 10. Previously described surfaces 51 c and 51 d are adapted to the top and bottom surfaces of the frame walls 62 a-d, both of which have holes (not shown) for receiving fasteners 55 which are aligned with corresponding holes in a frame wall or a sheet, and forms a coolant chamber 128 for receiving coolant 125 as shown in FIG. 1C.

[0048] Apparatus Assembly and Matrix Formation

[0049] Referring to FIGS. 1A, 1B, and 1C to assemble the apparatus 30 a resilient material (for example, a gasket) or member (for example, an O ring) (not shown) to make a fluid-tight joint, is placed in the channel groove 40 of the bottom frame 10. The center frame 15 is placed on top of the bottom frame 10, with the resilient gasket or O ring forming a seal between center frame 15 and bottom frame 10, thus forming a coolant chamber 129 for receiving coolant 125. A spacer gasket 20 is placed on the top surface 51 b of the metal sheet 50 b, such that a portion of the spacer gasket 20 is flush with three of the outer edges of the center frame 15. Optionally, an additional sheet 53 of a non-adherent material (i.e., TEFLON™) is overlaid on the spacer gasket 20, with the edges of the sheet 53 extending to the outer edges of the spacer gasket 20. The top frame 25 is then placed over the spacer gasket 20 so that the bottom surface 51 c of frame 25 is in contact with either the spacer gasket 20 or the optional sheet 53. The frames 10, 15, 25 are fastened together, for example, by securing half drawn latches 45 and 46 to each other.

[0050] As illustrated in FIG. 1C, a chamber 75, to contain a matrix-forming fluid defined by the interior surfaces 22 a-c of spacer gasket 20, the bottom optional surface 51 c of sheet 50 c of top frame 25, or a surface of the optional sheet 53, and the top surface 51 b of sheet 50 b of center frame 15. The chamber 75 has an opening 76 on one side to introduce the matrix-forming fluid and to insert the spacer gasket plug 21. The inner surface 23 of the spacer gasket plug 21 forms a wall of the chamber 75 when the spacer gasket plug 21 is inserted into the chamber opening 76.

[0051] The matrix-forming fluid is introduced into the chamber 75 of the apparatus 30, either through opening 76 or by another means, substantially filling the entire chamber 75. In one embodiment, the fluid is introduced incrementally, for example, in increments of about 20 ml-30 ml, with intermittent tapping of the apparatus 30 to avoid trapping bubbles in the fluid. Spacer plug 21 is then inserted into the opening 76 to seal the chamber 75, thus containing the matrix-forming fluid. The matrix-forming fluid contained within chamber 75 is then cooled at a controlled rate to solidify the matrix-forming fluid and thereby form the matrix.

[0052] As illustrated in FIG. 1B, the apparatus 30 is cooled by indirect contact of the chamber 75 with a source of coolant 125, via a conduit such as a hose 126 or other type of tubing connected to hose barbs 35 and 37. The conduit 126 may be connected to a coolant circulator 127 for recirculating flow of coolant 125. Alternatively, the coolant 125 may exhaust. In either case, coolant 125 flows directionally within the walls 60 a-d of the bottom frame 10 and the walls 61 a-d of the center frame 15 which are fastened together, and within the walls 62 a-d of the top frame 25, for a time and at a flow rate and temperature sufficient to effect controlled freezing of the matrix.

[0053] Use of a system that flows or recirculates coolant 125 is advantageous for several reasons. The system is closed, and hence is less hazardous and more contained than an open system, such as a static controlled-temperature bath. The system prevents loss of the coolant 125, and allows a coolant-containing reservoir of any volume to be used. The system maintains a more stable temperature and, therefore, generates a more stable rate of cooling. Control of the rate of cooling is a factor in the determination of the distribution of reticulations of the polymer that forms the matrix. A stable controlled rate of cooling results in matrices having a reproducibly consistent and desirable distribution and quality of reticulations.

[0054] While the chamber 75 of apparatus 30 has six surfaces which are identified by numerals 22 a-c, 23, 51 b, and 51 c (the boundaries of the “box”), four of these surfaces, defined by numerals 22 a-c and 23, are insulated by the gaskets 20, 21 between the surfaces of sheets 50 b and 50 c. Therefore, virtually all of the heat is removed, and the cooling is regulated, through these two surfaces of sheets 50 b and 50 c. In this respect, the cooling of the matrix-forming fluid could be referred to as occurring between the two surfaces 51 b and 51 c.

[0055] Any type of fluid coolant 125 that is able to absorb heat and to lower the temperature in the chamber 75 sufficient to freeze the matrix-containing fluid at a controlled rate, that is, to effect a decrease in temperature from about 4° C. to about −70° C. in less than about two hours, for example, from about ten minutes to about twenty minutes, or less than about one-half hour. Fluid cooling advantageously occurs with efficiency and predictability, and furthermore is more easily regulated than air cooling, in the same manner as fluid cooling of an automobile engine occurs more efficiently than does air cooling. Examples of coolants which may be used include, but are not limited to, alcohols (for example, ethanol, propanol, etc.), polyethylene glycol, oils, silicone oils, or any fluid with low viscosity at temperatures down to −70° C., etc. In one embodiment, the temperature of the coolant is between about 0° C. and about −200° C. In another embodiment, the temperature of the coolant is between about −20° C. and −70° C. In yet another embodiment, the temperature of the coolant is between about −40° C. and −70° C. These temperatures regulate the average size and distribution of the reticulations in the matrix. As one example, the matrix-forming fluid is exposed to 95% ethanol that has been chilled to −45° C. for between 60 minutes and 120 minutes. Other embodiments are also within the knowledge of one skilled in the art.

[0056] Gases that have a vapor transition temperature which permit freezing of the matrix-forming solution can also be used as a coolant, as known to one skilled in the art. For example, gaseous nitrogen (vapor transition temperature −196° C.), known to one skilled in the art to effect controlled rate freezing of cells in culture, is sufficiently cold to freeze the matrix-forming fluid. In embodiments using a gas coolant, the flow of gas may be increased to compensate for the decreased efficiency of cooling with a gas, compared to a liquid which can absorb more heat. Increased flow of a gas may be easier to achieve than with a liquid because a pump would not be required. Other advantages of using a gaseous coolant are that small leaks would not be problematic, as they may be with liquid cooling, and a gas coolant system would be cleaner because there would be no attendant liquid spills.

[0057] For static cooling, the embodiment of the apparatus 30 a illustrated in FIGS. 1D and 1E is used. The chamber 75 is configured without the bottom frame 10 and without the sheet 50 d of the top frame 25. The chamber 75 is sealed at the perimeter 22 a-c and 23 to prevent contact between the matrix-forming solution and the liquid coolant, because contact would result in failure to freeze or melting of the matrix. Alternatively, the chamber 75 within apparatus 30 a is sealed at only three of the four sides (for example, 22 a-c), leaving the fourth side unsealed. The apparatus 30 a is then immersed or dipped into a bath of fluid coolant up to, but not over, the unsealed side.

[0058] After exposing the matrix-forming solution to a coolant under conditions sufficient to freeze the solution and form a matrix, the closures 45 are released. The top frame 25 is carefully removed from the center frame 15, upon which the matrix is supported on the surface 51 b of sheet 50 b. The nonstick sheet 53, if present, is removed carefully from the top surface of the frozen matrix. The spacer gasket 20 and spacer gasket plug 21 may optionally be removed from the center frame 15 and the matrix. The center frame 15 is removed from the bottom frame 10. The center frame 15, supporting the matrix 130 on surface 51 b of sheet 50 b, is placed in a freeze-drying device to lyophilize the ice from the matrix 130.

[0059] The rate of freezing of the matrix-forming fluid may be controlled by adjustment of one or more variables that contribute to the rapid heat transfer from the matrix-forming solution to the ambient environment. Therefore, the invention includes use of an apparatus 30 or 30 a, to contain and contact the matrix-forming fluid, made of a material which allows highly efficient heat transfer. The apparatus 30 itself allows regulation of several variables during the freezing process. These variables include the shape and dimensions of the apparatus 30, the volume of matrix-forming fluid that is contained, and the thermal conductivity and specific heat of the materials which contact the matrix-forming fluid, that is, the specific material forming the substantially rigid and flat sheets 50 b and 50 c which contact the matrix-forming fluid. One example of such a material is metal (for example, aluminum, stainless steel, etc) which is a good conductor of heat. Desirably, the material is also substantially rigid to resist deformation, and contains a nonstick and/or polished surface that is in contact with the matrix-forming fluid.

[0060] The size and uniformity of the reticulations in the matrix formed from the matrix-forming fluid result from the size of ice crystals formed during the freezing process, because the ice displaces the solute in the fluid and thus determines the distance between reticulations. The size of ice crystals is inversely proportional to the rate of freezing. The rate of freezing is inversely proportional to the temperature of the coolant, and directly proportional to the thermal conductivity and specific heat of any materials which contact the matrix-forming fluid during the freezing process.

[0061] The size and distribution of the reticulations in the matrix may also be regulated by the temperature at which the components in the matrix-forming fluid freeze. The distance between the reticulations is inversely proportional to the concentration of components and to the rate of freezing of the matrix-forming fluid, and directly proportional to the concentration of water in the matrix-forming fluid. The thickness of the matrix is directly proportional to the concentration of components in the matrix-forming fluid. The concentrations of components in the matrix-forming fluid may be formulated to yield a combined % wt/vol concentration which decreases the average distance between the reticulations, and increases the thickness of the matrix. In one embodiment, combined component concentrations in the range of about 0.10%^(wt/vol) to about 2.0%^(wt/vol) matrix compounds may be used. In another embodiment, combined component concentrations in the range of about 0.50%^(et/vol) to about 1.80%^(wt/vol) may be used. The thickness of the matrix is also is directly proportional to the thickness of the spacer gasket 20 and spacer gasket plug 21 used in the chamber 75. In one embodiment, the chamber 75 is configured to result in a matrix having a thickness is in the range of about 0.1 mm to about 3.0 mm.

[0062] The responses to the freezing temperature of the size and distribution of the reticulations prepared using the inventive method and apparatus may be determined by measurement of scanning electron micrographs (SEM) of the rehydrated and dried matrix. In one embodiment, the reticulations are distributed in the shape of ellipsoid spheres and have an average diameter in the range of about 50 μm to about 150 μm.

[0063] An apparatus 30 for preparing a biocompatible matrix, and a method of using the apparatus 30 to prepare a biocompatible matrix, are thus disclosed. The inventive apparatus 30 and method provide a matrix capable of supporting cells to form an implantable or engraftable surgical device, such as a cultured skin device for temporary or permanent skin replacement on a burn or other wound. The matrix is used to support one or more layers of cultured dermal cells, which serve as a lamination layer for a epidermal cells. Other variations or embodiments of the invention will also be apparent to one of ordinary skill in the art from the above description. Thus, the forgoing embodiments are not to be construed as limiting the scope of this invention. 

What is claimed is:
 1. An apparatus to prepare a biocompatible matrix from a matrix-forming fluid comprising a chamber to contain a matrix-forming fluid, said chamber defined by at least a top planar surface of a heat conductive material and a bottom planar surface of a heat conductive material, said top and bottom surfaces effective to symmetrically remove heat from said top surface and said bottom surface of said matrix-forming fluid, at least one gasket having a uniform thickness positioned between said top and bottom surfaces to define a perimeter of said chamber, said gasket capable of containing said matrix-forming fluid within said perimeter, and a plurality of fasteners to fasten said apparatus.
 2. The apparatus of claim 1 further comprising a container sized to contain a coolant fluid for immersion of said apparatus in said coolant fluid.
 3. The apparatus of claim 2 wherein said container is open.
 4. The apparatus of claim 1 wherein said chamber is a bladder.
 5. The apparatus of claim 1 wherein said heat conductive material is a metal.
 6. A method for producing a biocompatible matrix comprising containing a matrix-forming fluid within a chamber, said chamber having a perimeter defined by a gasket, a top surface of a thermal conductive material in contact with said fluid, and a bottom surface of a thermal conductive material in contact with said fluid, cooling said matrix-forming fluid under conditions to produce a matrix having substantially symmetric reticulations and uniform thickness, dehydrating the matrix, and physically crosslinking the matrix.
 7. The method of claim 6 wherein physical crosslinking is by a method selected from the group consisting of thermal dehydration, gamma irradiation, and combinations thereof.
 8. The method of claim 6 wherein the matrix-forming fluid contains a protein.
 9. The method of claim 6 wherein cooling is by a method selected from the group consisting of immersing the chamber in a coolant, positioning the chamber in a bath through which a coolant can be circulated, and circulating a coolant within a jacketed chamber.
 10. The method of claim 6 wherein said cooling rate effects a decrease in temperature from about 4° C. to about −70° C. in a time up to about two hours.
 11. An apparatus for casting a biologically compatible matrix, said apparatus comprising a matrix forming chamber forming an open box with five joined surfaces and a separate sixth surface attachable to said open box to form a closed box, the chamber capable of containing a matrix-forming fluid within spacers having a substantially uniform thickness between a top surface of a thermal conductive material and a bottom surface of a thermal conductive material, a coolant chamber sized to contain said matrix-forming chamber on at least said top and bottom surfaces and having at least one fluid channel and at least one fluid port within each of said top and bottom surfaces, and fasteners to effect a liquid-tight seal among at least the five joined surfaces.
 12. A method for producing a biocompatible matrix for a cultured skin device comprising providing a matrix-forming fluid within gaskets having a substantially uniform thickness and defining a perimeter of a chamber, said gaskets positioned between a top thermally conductive surface in contact with said fluid and a bottom thermally conductive surface in contact with said fluid, freezing the fluid to form a solid sheet, dehydrating the solid sheet to form a biocompatible matrix, and physically crosslinking the matrix.
 13. The method of claim 12 further populating the matrix with at least one animal cell.
 14. A biocompatible matrix having substantially symmetric reticulations, said matrix prepared by providing a matrix-forming fluid to an apparatus wherein the fluid is contained between a first thermally conductive surface and a second thermally conductive surface and has a substantially uniform thickness, cooling the fluid at a controlled rate to simultaneously remove heat from said first and second surfaces to form a solid sheet, dehydrating the solid sheet to form the matrix, and physically crosslinking the matrix, said matrix capable of supporting cells inoculated thereon.
 15. The matrix of claim 14 capable of supporting at least one epidermal cell and at least one dermal cell.
 16. The matrix of claim 14 wherein the fluid contains a substance selected from the group consisting of a protein and a polypeptide.
 17. The matrix of claim 21 wherein cooling is at a rate to effect a decrease in temperature from about 4° C. to about −70° C. at a time up to about two hours.
 18. An apparatus for forming a biocompatible reticulated matrix comprising a bottom frame; a top frame having an undersurface of a thermally conductive material, a center frame capable of being fastened between the bottom and top frames, the center frame having an oversurface of a thermally conductive material and capable of containing a matrix-forming fluid thereon within spacer gaskets capable of regulating a thickness of a matrix formed from said matrix-containing fluid, and fasteners to fasten the bottom and top frames with the center frame there between, said apparatus capable of transferring heat at a rate to effect controlled freezing of the matrix-forming fluid to form the matrix.
 19. The apparatus of claim 18 wherein the bottom frame comprises a framework forming a chamber capable of containing a coolant to effect freezing of the matrix-forming fluid.
 20. The apparatus of claim 19 wherein the bottom frame further comprises at least two ports for providing the bottom frame with a coolant fluid and flowing the coolant fluid through the frame, and fasteners to fasten with the top frame.
 21. The apparatus of claim 18 wherein at least one of the surfaces of a thermally conductive material is substantially non-adherent.
 22. The apparatus of claim 18 wherein the thermally conductive material is a metal.
 23. The apparatus of claim 18 wherein the spacer gaskets are of a resilient composition and contact the surfaces of thermal conductive materials.
 24. The apparatus of claim 18 wherein at least one of the surfaces of thermal conductive materials has a non-adherent coating.
 25. The apparatus of claim 18 wherein the top frame comprises a framework forming a chamber capable of containing a coolant fluid to effect freezing of the matrix-forming fluid.
 26. The apparatus of claim 25 wherein the top frame further comprises at least two ports for filling the chamber with a coolant and flowing the coolant fluid through the apparatus, and fasteners to fasten with the bottom frame.
 27. A method for producing a biocompatible matrix comprising providing a matrix-forming fluid comprising collagen between a first thermally conductive surface of a chamber and a second thermally conductive and within a perimeter defined by a gasket of substantially uniform thickness, cooling the matrix-forming fluid to form a solid uncrosslinked sheet having a substantially uniform thickness by freezing at a controlled rate, and dehydrating the solid sheet to form the matrix, and physically crosslinking the matrix.
 28. The method of claim 27 wherein the physical crosslinking of the matrix is by a method selected from the group consisting of thermal dehydration, gamma irradiation, and combinations thereof.
 29. The method of claim 27 further comprising sterilizing the crosslinked matrix.
 30. The method of claim 27 wherein the first and second surfaces are substantially flat and substantially non-deformable.
 31. The method of claim 27 wherein cooling is by a method selected from the group consisting of immersing the chamber in a static coolant fluid, placing the chamber in a coolant fluid which can be circulated, and circulating a coolant fluid within a coolant chamber.
 32. The method of claim 27 wherein said matrix has a thickness and contains substantially uniform and substantially symmetric reticulations across said thickness.
 33. An apparatus for casting a biologically compatible matrix, said apparatus comprising a metal chamber forming an open chamber with five joined surfaces and a separate sixth surface attachable to said open chamber to form a closed chamber containing a matrix-forming fluid, spacers to space the first and second surfaces and thereby regulate a thickness of a matrix resulting from freezing of the matrix-forming fluid, and fasteners to effect a liquid-tight seal among at least the five joined surfaces.
 34. The apparatus of claim 33 further comprising at least one aperture throughout a length of the first surface and at least one aperture throughout a length of the second surface for circulating a coolant throughout the lengths of the top, bottom, and center frames.
 35. A method for producing a biocompatible matrix for a replacement skin device comprising providing a collagen-containing matrix-forming fluid between a first thermally conductive surface of a closed chamber and a second thermally conductive surface of the closed chamber, freezing the sheet to form a solid uncrosslinked sheet having a substantially uniform thickness, dehydrating the solid sheet to form the matrix, and physically crosslinking the matrix, said matrix capable of supporting a lamination layer of cultured dermal cells for a layer of cultured epidermal cells applied thereon.
 36. A biocompatible matrix having substantially uniform and substantially symmetric reticulations, said matrix prepared by providing a matrix-forming fluid to an apparatus wherein the fluid is contained between a first thermally conductive surface and a second thermally conductive surface and within a perimeter defined by a gasket of substantially uniform thickness, cooling the fluid at a controlled rate to simultaneously remove heat from said first and second surfaces form a solid sheet having a substantially uniform thickness, dehydrating the solid sheet to form the matrix, and physically crosslinking the matrix, said matrix capable of supporting cells inoculated thereon.
 37. The matrix of claim 36 capable of supporting at least one animal cell.
 38. The matrix of claim 36 wherein the fluid further comprises a carbohydrate.
 39. The matrix of claim 36 wherein cooling is at a rate to effect a decrease in temperature from about 4° C. to about −70° C. in a time up to about two hours.
 40. An apparatus for controlled rate freezing of a matrix-forming fluid comprising a closed chamber defined by at least a top and bottom surface of a heat conductive material, said chamber containing said fluid, said heat conductive material symmetrically removing heat.
 41. The apparatus of claim 40 wherein the chamber is a bladder.
 42. The apparatus of claim 40 wherein the chamber further comprises at least one gasket of substantially uniform thickness separating said top and bottom surfaces. 